The simple solution is to not nest HTML and Markdown eg.
<kbd> <a href="http://builder.makeroid.io">Builder</a> Version: 1.0.0 <small><a href="https://community.makeroid.io/t/makeroid-andromeda/5031?u=barreeeiroo">Makeroid Andromeda</a> :star2: </small></kbd>
Builder Version: 1.0.0 Makeroid Andromeda 