I don’t think it’s possible with just CSS. Although there is a ::placeholder selector, that is used for styling an existing placeholder.
However, it seems you can do it with JavaScript. By adding this to your theme’s </head> tag in the Admin Settings:
<script type="text/discourse-plugin" version="0.11.1">
api.onPageChange(() => {
document.getElementById('new-account-email').placeholder =
'Replace with your email placeholder';
document.getElementById('new-account-username').placeholder =
'Replace with your username placeholder';
document.getElementById('new-account-name').placeholder =
'Replace with your name placeholder';
document.getElementById('new-account-password').placeholder =
'Replace with your password placeholder';
});
</script>